BURNOUT NORTH OF 60 

 

 

 

 



 ii 

BURNOUT NORTH OF 60: 

 

AN INVESTIGATION OF TURNOVER AND BURNOUT AMONGST SOCIAL WORKERS 

IN NUNAVUT AND HOW TO BETTER SUPPORT THEM. 

  

By 

Cameron McKenzie, B.S.W. 

 

Thesis 
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements 

For the degree of Master of Social Work 
 
 
 

School of Social Work 
McMaster University 

 
 
 

© Copyright by Cameron McKenzie, September 2012 

 

 

 



 iii 

 
 
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK       McMaster University 

(2012)          Hamilton, Ontario  

 

 

TITLE:   Burnout North of 60 

 

 

AUTHOR:   Cameron McKenzie, B.S.W. (Carleton University)  

 

 

SUPERVISOR: Dr. Donna Baines  

 

 

 

NUMBER OF PAGES: vi, 65 

 
 
 
 
 
 



 iv 

About the Researcher 

I developed a research interest in Northern communities when I worked as a research 

assistant in the Northwest Territories, during my undergraduate degree. I later had an opportunity 

to conduct a Bachelor’s thesis, in Nunavut, examining the impact of medical travel on Inuit, 

which deepened my interest in Inuit way of life. This prompted me to consider factors impacting 

social work efficacy north of 60. As a result, a literature review and this study were conducted to 

uncover trends associated with high stress and burnout amongst these social workers. While I 

have a passion for Northern Aboriginal research, it should be noted that I am a non-Aboriginal 

social worker, with no direct front line social work experience in the north. Despite these 

distinctions, I am a strong advocate and ally of Aboriginal peoples as well as northern social 

workers.  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 



 v 

 
Abstract 

This qualitative study examines variables that can impact job stress, burnout, and turnover rates 

among social workers north of 60. The research herein seeks to fill in some gaps surrounding 

research on service worker employment conditions in the north that has not been specific to 

social workers serving Inuit clients. While the provisional literature review highlights possible 

conditions such as: social and geographical isolation, role stress, personality factors, and cultural 

and ethnic disparities as possible sources of burnout, these have never been evaluated in a 

manner specific to northern social workers. In-depth, semistructured interviews were conducted 

via telephone with nine former Nunavut social workers and directors in order to probe the issue 

of burnout and turnover. Application of Interpretive Social Sciences (ISS) and hermeneutical 

phenomenological approaches (HPA) to interview analysis revealed a trend in themes related to 

the administration of northern social work services, including: understaffing, lack of supervisory 

support, dual role stress, and overworked staff who already face the challenges of cultural 

incongruence for which they have been insufficiently trained to deal with. Final 

recommendations include increased attention and resources to the social work staff supporting 

vulnerable Inuit clients, including increased staffing and culturally sensitive training. 

 

 

 

 
 



 vi 

Acknowledgements 

 
 

I am grateful to my supervisor Dr. Donna Baines from McMaster University’s School of 

Social Work. She has been a great support during each stage of my research, particularly the 

research study ethic approval process through McMaster University’s Ethics Review Board. Her 

dedication to this project was very helpful. I would like to also thank my second reader, Dr. 

Saara Green, also from McMaster University’s School of Social Work, for her support. I would 

like to extend my thanks to Dr. Lynn Mackenzie, Executive Director of Social Services, 

Department of Health and Social Services in Iqaluit, Nunavut, for the funding of this research. 

Lastly, I want to thank all the participants who took part in this study. Without them this study 

would not be possible.  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 



 vii 

 
  

 
 

Table of Contents 
 

Introduction (Page 1) 

Context (Page 2) 

Literature review (Page 3) 

-Burnout amongst social workers (Page 4) 

-Role stress (Page 6) 

-Social Work in Northern Settings (Page 7) 

-Personality traits (Page 8) 

 -Climate (Page 9) 

 -Geography (Page 9) 

-Inuit Culture (Page 11) 

-Acculturation and Culture Shock (Page 12) 

-Social, Professional and Community Support (Page 13) 

Methodology (Page 15) 

Findings (Page 21) 

-Understaffing (Page 22) 

-Lack of Supervisory Supports (Page 24) 

 -Geographic Isolation (Page 29) 

 -Social Isolation (Page 30) 

-Feeling of Mistrust and Lack of Respect (Page 32) 

-Cultural Challenge and Gaps (Page 34) 

-Dual Role (Page 36) 



 viii 

-Repercussion of the Child and Family Service Act (CFSA) (Page 36) 

-The Effects of These Factors: Stress and Burnout (Page 37) 

Discussion (Page 38)  

-Stress and Burnout (Page 44) 

Recommendations (Page 46) 

Conclusion (Page 49)  

References (Page 50)   

Appendix A- Map of Nunavut (Page 61) 

Appendix B- Visual Representation of a Hermeneutic Circle (Page 62) 

Appendix C- In depth Interview Process (Page 63) 

Appendix D- Interview Questions (Page 64) 

Footnotes (Page 65) 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

 1 

 

 

 
Burnout North of 60: 

An Investigation of Turnover and Burnout Amongst Social Workers in Nunavut and How 

to Better Support Them. 

 
 
Introduction  

 
There is little research on the subject of social worker turnover in the far north. The 

studies that are available, however, do show a high turnover rate among these community social 

service workers (CSSW).1 Typically they come from southern urban communities and may have 

little background knowledge or experience of life in the far north, making their transition more 

difficult and predisposing them to isolation and burnout. The rationale for this study is to shed 

light on whether social workers are leaving primarily because of burnout, why burnout occurs, 

and what can be done about it. The study looks at these issues as they are highlighted in relevant 

literature, followed by a discussion of practices within a northern setting, the research methods I 

utilize, analysis of findings from my interviews, and a discussion of their connections to existing 

research. Based on this rationale, the research explores the potential causes of burnout such as 

culture shock, isolation, the presence or absence of support systems, workload, and expectations 

of these social workers. I hypothesize that these causes heavily influence, both, burnout and high 

turnover rates among northern social workers. I further posit that the provision of greater and 

better employment supports for northern social workers may prevent burnout in the future and 

lead to a greater stability in social work staff within Nunavut, thus fostering a higher quality of 

care for their clients.  



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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Context 

Before delving into the content of this study, it is important to understand Aboriginal 

groups in Canada and how Inuit2 are a distinct group. Inuit are one of three main Aboriginals 

groups in Canada comprising First Nations, Metis and Inuit, as recognized by the Canadian 

Government’s Constitution Act of 1982. Inuit, however, are not formally recognized in the 

Federal Indian Act (White, 2009). The distinctions used to divide status and non-status or Metis 

do not apply to Inuit, as no such distinctions exist in Nunavut (White, 2009). In a 1939 Supreme 

Court of Canada decision, the court held that the federal government had the power to make 

laws; however, these laws had to extend to Inuit (National Aboriginal Health Organization 

(NAHO), 2012). NAHO (2012) defines Inuit as the 

…circumpolar people, inhabiting regions in Russia, Alaska, Canada and 

Greenland, united by a common culture and language. There are of 

Canada, Alaska, Greenland and Russia. There are approximately, 55,000 

Inuit living in Canada. Inuit live primarily in Northwest Territories, 

Nunavut, and northern parts of Quebec and coastal Labrador. They have 

traditionally lived for the most part north of the tree line in the area 

bordered by the Mackenzie Delta in the west, the Labrador coast in the 

east, the southern point of Hudson Bay in the south, and the High Arctic 

Islands in the north. (NAHO, 2012, p.1) 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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The Territory of Nunavut was formed in 1999. It was established as an autonomous region “with 

distinct status in the Canadian Federation” (White, 2009, p. 284). This allowed Inuit self-

government to occur whereby “85% of Nunavummiut (the people of Nunavut) are Inuit” (White, 

2009, p. 290). It is only since this time that Inuit have been officially recognized as a cultural 

entity in Canada and have, thus, garnered more attention from ethnographic researchers. 

Literature Review 

Current literature on stress in the workplace indicated that human service workers, 

including teachers, social workers, nurses, prison officers and police officers, are prone to higher 

levels of stress than those in most other forms of employment (Van Huegten, 2011; Johnson et 

al., 2005). Social workers and other psychosocial workers are especially subject to higher levels 

of stress resulting from exposure to violence and threats, high emotional demands, role conflict, 

the need to hide or suppress personal emotions, and the perception of having a low degree of 

influence in the workplace (Van Huegten, 2011; Rugulies et al., 2007; Lloyd, King, & 

Chenoweth, 2002). As a result, many social workers fall prey to stress-related disorders, 

described as “vicarious trauma” and “compassion fatigue,” leading to job resignation and 

burnout (Van Huegten, 2011, p. 25). In the workplace, this combination of excessive stress and a 

lack of supervisory support led to high staff turnover rates for social workers and a greater 

incidence of sick leave and absenteeism (Van Huegten, 2011). In Rugulies et al.’s (2007) study 

of 180 human service professionals, psychosocial work was found to be associated with a 71% 

increase in absence days due to sickness. 

In northern rural communities, social workers faced more challenges than their southern 

counterparts. The added challenges of working in the north included insufficient resources for 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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programming, such as addiction treatment and youth programs, geographic and social isolation, 

and cultural barriers (Phaneuf, Dudding, & Arreak, 2011). Research regarding northern rural 

social workers, however, remains in its infancy. Typically, human services workers who wish to 

work in northern rural communities come from southern urban communities, may have little 

working knowledge of life in the far north, and have a particular dearth of knowledge 

surrounding Inuit culture and customs (Phaneuf, Dudding, & Arreak, 2011, p. 32). As a result, 

these workers may be insufficiently prepared to face the challenges of breaching the cultural 

divide between themselves and their clients. They may also carry westernized or Eurocentric 

biases that make it more difficult for them to comprehend and assimilate traditional Inuit values 

and customs into their own social work practices (O’Neill, 2010). Such gaps in cultural and 

social knowledge jeopardize worker-client relationships as workers attempt to impose 

westernized helping modalities that intrinsically oppose Inuit ways of knowing and being (Grace, 

personal communication, August 15 2011). Furthermore, poor communication between worker 

and client, a lack of cultural awareness, and the workers’ cultural and geographical displacement 

can all perpetuate worker burnout (Phaneuf, Dudding, & Arreak, 2011; Zapf, 1993; Schmidt, 

2002).  

‘Burnout’ among social workers.  In their study on burnout, Maslach, Jackson and 

Sanders (1982) defined burnout among health professional as emotional exhaustion, 

depersonalization, and a sense of decreased personal accomplishment (as cited in Kim & Stoner, 

2008; Anderson, 2000). Together, these features were considered the precursors to burnout and 

provided a framework for understanding and evaluating social workers that were at risk. 

According to Maslach and Jackson (1986), burnout was a major factor influencing the turnover 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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of social workers within northern rural communities. In Nunavut, the glaring inadequacy of 

community social supports, especially the shortage of child and family service workers, was of 

great concern (Phaneuf, Dudding, & Arreak, 2011). These workers may be on call 24/7 for 

extended periods of time, which can lead to emotional exhaustion (Phaneuf, Dudding, & Arreak, 

2011). In a recent review of the Child and Family Services Act (CFSA) by Terriplan Consultants 

(2010), in the Northwest Territories, social worker burnout was linked to unreasonable and 

excessive work hours, case overload, and social isolation. These features were also found to 

contribute to, and result in, job dissatisfaction and absenteeism, as well as an inability to attract 

and retain new, well-qualified social work staff (Phaneuf, Dudding, & Arreak, 2011).  

Social service deficiencies were outlined in a recent report of the Auditor-General of 

Canada to the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut in 2011. This document noted that as of the 

2009-10 fiscal year an average of 17 of the 46 social service worker positions remained unfilled 

on a month-to-month basis by either a full time or temporary employee (Office of the Auditor 

General of Canada, 2011). These 51 CSSW positions are appointed by the Director of Child and 

Family Services, spread across the three regions in Nunavut; Baffin, Kivalliq and Kitikmeot. 

Amongst these workers there are 11 supervisor positions—5 of which serve one community and 

6 serve two or more communities (Office of the Auditor-General of Canada, 2011). Supervisor 

duties included ascertaining staff compliance with the CFSA standards and administrative 

procedures (Office of the Auditor-General of Canada, 2011). In addition, the Review of the 

CFSA also revealed that role stress and burnout for social workers was exponentially greater 

within northern Canadian territories than in other territories or provinces (Phaneuf, Dudding, & 

Arreak, 2011). Most of these underlying issues resulted from limited infrastructure, poor 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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establishment and maintenance of social services systems, and the insufficient supervisory 

supports within the northern social work system (Phaneuf, Dudding, & Arreak, 2011).   

Role Stress.  Role stress has been described a type of employee stress that emerged from 

boundary-spanning activities (Stamper & Johlke, 2003). Role stress encompasses role conflict, 

role ambiguity, and role overload, all of which can lead to or exacerbate burnout and long-term, 

negative, health consequences for social workers (Ben-Zur & Michael, 2008; Um & Harrison, 

1998; Mor Barak, Nissly, & Levin, 2001). It often emerges from the increasing demands made of 

social workers in their current work settings, including paperwork, casework overloads due to 

staffing shortages, inadequate supervision, and challenging clientele (Kim & Stoner, 2008). 

Staffing continues to be a major issue for social workers in Nunavut. Kim and Stoner’s (2008) 

cross-sectional study was one of the few recent works that addressed the problems of burnout 

amongst social workers, particularly the intention to leave work due to burnout. Their study of 

346 California state-registered social workers found that “role stress” positively correlated with 

burnout (Kim & Stoner, 2008, p. 5) and was a prominent antecedent to absenteeism (Huang, 

Chang, & Lin, 2003). Further, Kim and Stoner (2008) found that high job demands and 

insufficient job resources cumulatively influenced and impacted burnout as they contributed to 

the unattainability of task completion, goal-setting, and obtaining and maintaining job autonomy 

(Kim & Stoner, 2008). These problems cannot be understated as they implicate all social work 

departments, the quality of services provided to the clients, and the level of trust clients have in 

various social service systems (Kim & Stoner, 2008).   

Role stress, however, is only one possible factor contributing to conditions of burnout, as 

it has been estimated that one-third of all social workers undergo serious mental stress issues or 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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physical stressors, while more than half experience stress that is higher than they can safely 

tolerate or manage (Coffey, Dugdill,  & Tatersall, 2004; Huxley et al., 2005). Many social 

workers, while physically present at work, may be unable to properly focus on the tasks at hand 

under these high-stress conditions (Van Huegten, 2011).  

Social work in northern settings.  When working in isolated northern settings, amidst 

Inuit with their own cultural practices and standards, many unique and extreme role stress 

challenges emerged. Zapf (1993) analyzed the impact of role stress in northern communities and 

found that social workers tended to transfer work stress from their urban settings to their new, 

remote northern communities (Zapf, 1993). Role expectations, based on training in southern 

urban centres, were also found to come into conflict with the perspectives of northerners (Zapf, 

1993). Specifically, insider versus outsider positions became blurred and problematized the 

workers’ expectations of previously established worker-client roles (Zapf, 1993). Many of these 

concerns resulted from the volatile nature of pressing client problems, the volume of clients, and 

the sparse employment supports (Gough, Shlonsky, & Duddling, 2009; Stephenson, Rondeau, 

Michaud, & Fiddler, 2000). These were deemed to be inherent to northern communities, which 

equated to increased worker demands and higher-than-normal stress levels (Phaneuf, Dudding, & 

Arreak, 2011). Client problems emerged from a history of deinstitutionalization and colonialism, 

delineating an impoverished, increasingly vulnerable clientele base that remains subject to 

perpetual funding shortfalls and continuous restructuring of social services (Stephenson et al., 

2000; Gough, Shlonsky, & Dudding, 2009; Schmidt, 2000).  According to O’Neill (2010), non-

First Nations practitioners also feel “guilt by race” due to lingering effects of colonialism. This 

aspect of the culture shock, combined with high workloads, insufficient training and knowledge, 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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and exposure to emotional trauma found in clients, were all factors linked to heightened stress 

among northern practitioners (O’Neill, 2010). The workers described feelings of physical and 

emotional exhaustion as well as loss of compassion, which are recognized as antecedents to 

burnout (O’Neill, 2010). Furthermore, these experiences caused social workers to lose faith in 

themselves, leaving them in a position where they were unable to help their Northern clients 

(O’Neill, 2010). These levels of stress increased exponentially for those social workers employed 

in the areas of child protection and mental health due to compassion fatigue (Van Huegten, 2011; 

Conrad & Kellar-Guenther, 2006; Bennett, Plint, & Clifford, 2005; Anderson, 2000). Such, 

already challenging, work conditions can be further amplified by the social workers’ personality 

traits and coping mechanisms. 

Personality traits.   Studies evaluating healthcare workers, including nurses and 

volunteer counselors, have attempted to address personality factors that contributed to role stress 

and burnout (Eastburg, Williamson, Gorsuch, & Ridley, 1994). Some personality characteristics 

identified as contributing to burnout included “low hardiness,” a disagreeable nature, 

introversion, low openness and conscientiousness, having an external locus of control,3 

neuroticism,4 Type A behavior,5 and low self-esteem (Maslach et al., 2001; Zellars, Perrewe, & 

Hochwarter, 2000). Having a negative affect or negative personality traits were correlated with 

emotional exhaustion and the depersonalization facets, leading to an individual’s failed sense of 

personal accomplishments (Thoresen et al., 2003). Eastburg, Williamson, Gorsuch and Ridley 

(1994) identified extraversion as a burnout buffer. These individuals, however, required more 

interaction with co-workers and peer support in order to successfully avoid burnout, given 

northern isolation conditions as well as cultural and linguistic barriers (Eastburg et al., 1994). 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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Van Heugten (2011) suggested that personality traits played a role in burnout. Any combination 

of these personality traits or characteristics affected a social worker’s ability to cope with stress 

and their susceptibility to burnout (Van Heugten, 2011).   

Climate. Climate has been an important factor influencing social worker burnout and 

turnover amongst northern Canada’s helping professionals. Inclement weather serves as an 

isolating feature that in turn contributed to stressful rural social work practices (O’Neill, 2010). 

Stress related to the uncontrollable nature of weather conditions, often resulted in blocked roads, 

limited abilities to travel, and dangerous travelling conditions for social workers (O’Neill, 2010). 

The extreme cold can also be challenging, as many social workers are unaccustomed to frigid 

climates and have difficulty adapting to this type of environment (O’Neill, 2010). Nunavut’s 

climate varies based on the region. The average summer temperature in the capital Iqaluit, on 

southern Baffin Island, for example, can range around seven to eight degrees Celsius, whereas 

the average winter temperatures can be in the mid to high -20’s. During the summer solstice 

there is an average of 21 hours of sunshine for most areas, however, in Iqualit the shortest winter 

day consists of only four hours of sunlight (Nunavut Tourism, 2012). Grise Fiord is the coldest 

community with winter temperatures commonly falling to -50 Celcius, with a summer high of +5 

Celsius.  

Geography.  The geography and cultural milieu are additional factors that can influence 

human service workers’ burnout, stress, and ultimate turnover in northern Canada. It was noted 

by Macleod et al.’s (2008) in-depth qualitative study of 152 Registered Nurses (RNs) from all 

provinces and territories, that nurses, educators, and administrators who worked in rural and 

remote regions (population of approximately 10,000 people, located outside of the accessible 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

 10 

commuting distance from major urban centres) had difficulty adjusting to these geographic 

locations. O’Neill (2010) noted that the challenges of life, in the north, also included the vast 

geographic distances between communities and the separation between some communities 

because of the location of the regions and personal or cultural perceptions. These workers 

encountered personal and professional isolation as well as geographical remoteness (Schmidt, 

2002). While most of these studies focused on nurses and other human service workers rather 

than social workers, they revealed insider-outsider distinctions as well as highlighted the 

isolation and burnout faced by many professionals within northern regions.  

Schmidt’s (2000) analytic literature review specifically explored challenges to social 

services and social work delivery, in the Canadian north, including dispersed and sparse 

populations, climate, transportation, and the nature of the northern economy (Schmidt, 2000). 

The northern provinces primarily relied on single serving industries, such as mining, pulp 

milling, or oil drilling, which can make the economy volatile as it remains subject to boom and 

burst cycles (Schmidt, 2000). These similar volatile conditions can also be found within the 

various social work positions. The outsider positioning of a social worker may be difficult to 

break free from due to various geographical, linguistic, and cultural barriers, which many social 

workers encounter when working in the north (Morin, Edouard,& Duhaime 2010). Social 

workers, in effect, were trapped in an environment where they had repetitive exposure not only 

to the traumatic experiences of their clients, but they were embedded in a small, geographically 

unstable, community (O’Neill, 2010). Nunavut can be considered geographically unstable 

because it is Canada’s largest territory with over 2 million square kilometers; with islands 

comprising of more than half of the territory (World Atlas, 2012). Many areas in Nunavut can 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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only be reached by sea or air given that the territory is mostly Canadian Shield, with various 

landscapes ranging drastically from flat to mountainous, broken into three regions: Qikiqtaaluk, 

Kivalliq and Kitikmeot (Nunavut Tourism, 2012) (See Appendix A).  

Inuit culture. Inuit culture has different characteristics and traditions than other 

Aboriginal cultures. Tester and Irniq (2008) traced Inuit history and its knowledge, Inuit 

Qaujimajatuqngit (IQ), in order to understand Inuit culture, traditions, beliefs, and ways of 

thinking. IQ incorporates a cosmological belief system, which focuses on managing biological 

resources in a seamless fashion, without separating humans from other forms of life (Tester & 

Irniq, 2008). It combines with Inuit’s guiding principles of Avatittinnik Kamatsiarniq: respect 

and care for the land, animals, and the environment; Ikajuqtigiinniq: working together for a 

common cause; and Aajiiqatigiinniq: decision-making through discussion and consensus 

(Nunavut Kavamanga, 2010).  

Inuit communities incorporate such core egalitarian values centring on equality, mutual 

responsibility, and the integrity of the community itself, in every aspect of their lives (Schmidt, 

2000). Coates, Gray, and Hetherington (2006) and Gray, Coates, and Bird (2010) described the 

close-knit nature of Inuit communities. They explained how Inuit’s thrive in co-dependent, 

mutually supportive, psycho-social networks as these connections allowed them to cope with the 

challenges they faced (Coates, Gray, & Hetherington, 2006; see also Gray, Coates, & Bird, 

2010). Central were conceptions of collective rights and self-governance, as this established 

equilibrium within these communities (Tester & Irniq, 2008). Inuit believed that the adoption of 

their history and knowledge into government policies and laws would allow for the preservation 

of Inuit cultural values, practices and traditions, and advance Canadian socioeconomics (Tester 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

 12 

& Irniq, 2008). Many aspects of Inuit culture, however, do not mesh well with the modern 

economic development models and neoliberal discourses, which focus on individualism, 

competition and privatization (Bodor, 2009; Braedly & Luxton, 2010).  

Acculturation and culture shock. The acculturation6 of Inuit has made working 

relations between social workers and this population precarious. Many of these fundamental 

problems are routed in historical events that led to cultural genocide and life-long traumas (Rae, 

2011). Assimilation, mandatory schooling, residential schools, imposing non-Inuit value systems 

(i.e. prison systems, Western notions of legal rights, etc.) and colonialism have all led to the 

“loss of Inuit self-reliance, culture and way of life” (Government of Nunavut, Nunavut 

Tunngavik Inc., Embrace Life Council and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2010).  In 

addition, the neoliberal, economically motivated markets and push for industrial development 

stunt the development of Nunavut leading to continuous funding cutbacks for Aboriginals 

(Bodor, 2009). Social workers were often associated with these forceful western influences, 

therefore, Inuit look at them with caution, resulting in difficulty establishing trust between the 

worker and the client (Fearn & Spirit Moon Consulting 2006). This problem is further 

exacerbated by the continually high turnover rate among social workers in Nunavut, as just as 

social workers come to be known and trusted they leave and are replaced by strangers. 

In a time when Inuit are still dealing with the fallout of colonialization, while also being 

subject to many “modern realities” that threaten their culture, Tester and Irniq (2008), explained 

how it is important for social workers, and all northern helping professionals, to increase their 

knowledge of Inuit culture and way of life to allow for a practical social work application (Tester 

& Irniq, 2008). This was considered a way to not only help minimize culture shock for CSSW’s 



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when transitioning into new communities, but would allow them to start integrating IQ principles 

into the programs and services they wanted to offer prior to their arrival (Phaneuf, Dudding, & 

Arreak, 2011).  

Social, professional, and community supports.  Along with the increased cultural 

awareness, the risk of burnout was also buffered by provision of social supports (Karasek & 

Theorell 1990; Houkes, Janssen, De Jonge, & Bakker, 2003). Karasek and Theorell (1990) and 

Houkes et al. (2003) felt increased social supports for social workers could help reduce work-

related stress by increasing morale (Karasek & Theorell 1990; Houkes et al., 2003), which was 

found to reduce turnover rates among northern social workers (Um & Harrison, 1998). Integral 

to this concept was for individuals to establish their own support systems by developing 

partnerships with individuals and local groups, in northern communities, as this enabled workers 

to feel more integrated into local community life (Um & Harrison, 1998; Schmidt 2002), thus, 

giving these workers a feeling of greater job efficacy (O’Neill, 2010).  

O’Neil (2010) notes that increased social, professional and community connections made 

social worker more vulnerable to the pain and suffering of their clients, expressed as a form of 

secondary trauma (O’Neill, 2010). Schmidt (2000) suggested a new social development model 

toward addressing this particular problem—one that took into consideration and promoted social 

and economic development in the community (Schmidt, 2000). It was found that this approach 

empowered the whole population, while remaining sensitive to local traditions, interests, and 

values (Schmidt, 2000).  

Preparation and training of northern social workers has, until now, focused primarily on 

the formal education of these workers and highlighted the benefits of increased beforehand 



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cultural and region-specific knowledge (Zapf, 1993). Schmidt (2000) noted that to minimize 

stress, it would be useful to arm northern social workers with more extensive training in existing 

models of practice and conflict adaption or resolution. Through a context-driven focus, social 

workers would be able to position themselves as “non-experts” who were collaborative and 

identified as well as addressed the clients’ most pressing needs through a social justice, anti-

oppressive and non-discriminatory lens (Schmidt, 2000). Additionally, Brown and Green (2009) 

have suggested increasing the number of placement opportunities in the north for those social 

workers who are contemplating working in these regions. These opportunities, as well as 

collaboration between incoming and outgoing social workers, were viewed as potentially 

effective preparatory approaches— the latter being especially useful in enabling social workers 

to capitalize on previous social workers’ experiences (Brown & Green, 2009; Misener et al., 

2008). It also provided the necessary transitional supports needed for these social workers 

(Misener et al., 2008).  

Online resources were noted to be helpful as per Misener et al., (2008) who conducted a 

digital stress management support group study. They found that online resources were an outlet 

that allowed social workers opportunities to vent and discuss their issues or concerns with their 

colleagues, enhanced social workers’ coping strategies, and developed stronger online supports 

with peers who subsequently validated their concerns or provided the social, professional and 

community supports they required (Misener et al., 2008). While the results of this study were not 

statistically significant, it provided ways of addressing the limited supports for northern social 

workers (Misener et al., 2008).  



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Eastburg et al., (1994) determined that supervisory support played an important role in 

preventing burnout and was considered an important coping mechanism for human service 

workers. Specifically, they commented on how supervisors needed to maintain “consideration” 

and “structure” in order to determine “job satisfaction and burnout” (Duxbury, Armstrong, Drew 

& Henly 1984). Consideration referred to a style of supervision that entailed a mutually trusting 

relationship with staff, awareness of feelings, respect for opinions, and open communication 

(Duxbury et al., 1984). The role of structure determined the degree to which the supervisor takes 

on directing and managing the workplace, including criticisms, planning, and monitoring, to 

ensure the wellbeing of all employees (Duxbury et al., 1984). Their study revealed that 

supervisors who provided a high degree of structure and low levels of consideration contributed 

to more burnout and job dissatisfaction amongst their workers (Duxbury et al. 1984). It was also 

noted that supportive behaviors were enhanced when supervisors had positive feedback training 

and interacted with their employees, as it led to lower levels of emotional exhaustion (Eastburg 

et al., 1994). These types of open, supportive supervisory roles led to lower levels of burnout, 

better job satisfaction, and more effective and appropriate coping mechanisms amongst both 

supervisors and employees (Duxbury et al. 1984).  

Methodology  

This study’s aim was to evaluate the experiences of front-line social workers, in Nunavut, 

in order to understand the factors and circumstances that lead to high turnover and ultimately 

worker burnout. The methodological approach examined this phenomenon of burnout amongst 

social workers by combining an Interpretive Social Sciences (ISS) and hermeneutical 

phenomenological approaches (HPA).   



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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The purpose of the ISS theoretical framework was to derive meaning from the 

experiences of individuals (in this case, front-line social workers in Nunavut) and then transform 

these meaning into an understanding of the circumstances and variables that impact specific 

phenomena or circumstances, like turnover and burnout (Neuman, 2011). ISS theory posits that 

reality is a social construct that is complex and constantly changing (Glesne, 2011). It 

acknowledges individuals’ subjective experience of their reality (Neuman, 2011). Inherent to this 

process is the ISS practical orientation of examining the everyday lives and tasks of ordinary 

people and conducting a “systematic analysis of socially meaningful action through the direct 

detailed observation of people” (Neuman, 1997, p. 68). In this study, the ordinary people were 

social workers and the tasks of interest included their jobs, roles, environment, and daily life 

interactions with Nunavut’s Inuit clients.  

ISS relates closely to hermeneutics, which is a theory of meaning that “literally means 

making the obscure plain” (Blaikie, 1993, p. 28 as cited in Neuman, 1997, p. 68). This has 

become the foundation of PHA, which involves an “interpretive process” (Creswell, 2007). 

Researchers build an understanding of their chosen phenomena by “mediating” (van Manen, 

1990, p. 26) between different meanings in order to interpret their lived experiences (Creswell, 

2007). Similar to ISS, HPA attempts to understand how people construct meaning around their 

lived realities (Neuman, 2011) and tries to interpret these experiences to determine its impact on 

both individuals and society (Laverty, 2008).  

HPA also recognizes and addresses researchers’ biases and assumptions that are 

embedded in the interpretive process, as well as interactions with interviewed participants 

(Laverty, 2008).  In doing qualitative research, reflexivity is an essential tool for the researcher to 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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develop to better understand both, that which is being studied and the process of studying it 

(Pillow, 2003). The researcher must be aware of their own bias, assumptions and social 

locations, along with those of the participants’, as they emerge. in the interviews and analysis 

(Neuman 2011). For these reasons, I took field notes on each interview to gather probing 

questions and to document my internal thought process for data analysis.   

The phenomenological data analysis was used to translate the real-life experiences of the 

participants into a textual form reflective of its essential nature (Ajjawi & Higgs, 2007).  The key 

strategy within this approach, was the use of the Hermeneutic Circle (Ajjawi & Higgs, 2007; 

Smith & Amrine, 1996) (See Appendix B), which begins and ends at the same place (with the 

self) and was a process of self-privileging because it recognized that all of the researcher’s 

findings existed in dialectical interaction with the self; that they are filtered through the 

researcher’s particular biases and understanding of the world (Amerine 1996 as cited in Smith & 

Amrine, 1996). The circle represented the process of understanding that evolved as the data (the 

parts) were acquired, thus, relating to the overall picture (the whole) and emerging as a 

developed interpretation over time (Ajjawi & Higgs, 2007). The understanding developed from 

this process was cyclical, since it ensured a conversation between the researcher and text, which 

was itself created by the researcher who used information obtained from the interview 

participants (Bontekoe, 1996, as cited in Ajjawi & Higgs, 2007). Together ISS and HPA 

provides for understanding an intensive analysis of specific phenomena, like high turnover rates 

and burnout, with the potential to generate themes with direct applicability to solving these 

problems (Glesne, 2011; Laverty, 2003). 

This study fulfilled the “postulate of adequacy” by providing an explanation that is 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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comprehensible as a common-sense interpretation of everyday life (Smart 1976, as cited in 

Neuman, 2011, p.105). Such an explanation included researcher subjectivities and observation in 

the final textual analysis, in order to yield results that were considered to be both valid and 

credible (Ajjawi & Higgs, 2007). Typically, the observations are made in a natural setting, but 

the timeframe and resources of this study confined data collection to in-depth phone interviews 

with participants, who were either working in the north, working some of the time in the north or 

worked in the north. 

The interview questions were derived from a literature review and discussions with the 

Executive Director of Social Services in Nunavut. Interview questions sought to disclose 

demographics as well as contributing factors to leaving one’s job and/or burnout (Appendix C). 

The questions explored social and environmental factors, such as isolation, climate and 

geography, participant subjectivities (i.e., workers’ own cultural and ethnic backgrounds, gender, 

specific job roles within their appointment, etc.) and social factors in order to try to pull apart 

how aspects of worker identity might interact with their perceptions of stress and burnout.  

This study was approved, in April 2012, by McMaster University’s Research Ethic Board 

(MREB). Participants were sought from the Executive Director of Social Services, Dr. Lynn 

MacKenzie, employed by the Department of Health and Social Services (DHSS). This occurred 

through a follow-up with a contact developed previously in Nunavut, who provided Dr. 

MacKenzie’s contact information. Dr. MacKenzie located 30-community social service workers 

in the DHSS’s records dating back two years, starting from April 2012. Those participants who 

agreed to be interviewed were provided a $50 honorarium in the form of a $50 VISA gift card, 

by the DHSS, once the interviews were completed. Of the 30 participants identified, only 23 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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could be contacted because they had updated contact information. A recruitment script approved 

by the MREB was sent to the 23 workers (Appendix D). There was a success rate of 39% as ten 

responded, but only nine were interviewed. The one remaining participant was contacted 

numerous times, however, the interview never materialized.  

This qualitative study consisted of a data collection process that took the form of in-

depth, semi-structured interviews. The process allowed for the compilation of a universal 

“composite description” (Creswell, 2007, p. 58) of “what” was experienced and “how” it was 

experienced (Moustakas, 1994). Semi-structured interviews have the advantage of establishing 

consistency across several interviews as each participant was asked a set list of questions, while 

simultaneously allowing for a more conversational interaction, permitting for a greater amount of 

data to be gathered (Guion et al., 2011).  

Three males and six females were interviewed. Two participants were Inuit and the others 

were non-Aboriginal. The job titles of eight of the participants were CSSW’s and one was the 

Director of Social Services in a remote community. Six of the participants were from southern 

provinces and two were from Nunavut and one was from the Yukon. Participants’ educational 

backgrounds and qualifications varied. Six of the participants had social work degrees; four had 

bachelor’s degrees and two had master’s degrees. The other three participants did not have social 

work degrees. Two participants had bachelor’s degrees in psychology, and one had a college 

diploma in human services. 

Interviews were conducted over the phone, digitally recorded, and later transcribed. 

Every attempt was made to clarify comments when needed to enhance understanding during the 

interview (Glesne, 2011). Participants were from all over Canada and interviews took place 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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between April to July 2012. Consent for the study was sent electronically to the participants, who 

then returned them back by mail, fax or electronically. In addition, verbal consent was sought 

and recorded prior to the commencement of each individual interview.  Interviews typically 

lasted 30 to 60 minutes. Participants were assigned number from one to nine to maintain 

anonymity. All recoded conversations were stored in a locked cabinet and on the interviewer’s 

personal computer with a password protection. Participants were contacted for clarification of 

points that arose during the interviews, in order to ask more “operationalizing” (Kyale & 

Brinkmann, 2008, p. 135) or clarifying questions. All interview recordings and transcriptions 

will be destroyed within two years. “The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers” was used 

in order to aggregate, sort, and interpret the study’s data (Saldaña, 2009). Interviews were coded 

for common themes or patterns based on the social workers’ perceptions and responses.  

The key limitation of this study was researcher bias. As an emerging social work 

researcher familiar with issues faced by Inuit, in the North, my prior knowledge and information 

may have caused me to influence the participants’ responses with my personal views. The fact 

that only social workers were interviewed was also a potential source of bias because their 

clients or supervisors, who may have provided very different insights, were excluded. These 

methodologies were chosen so that researcher bias can be integrated into the study to make it 

richer and more applicable to real-world problems and experiences (Glesne, 2011). An additional 

weakness of this type of study lied with the skills of the interviewer and the training that the 

researcher received. Optimally, the interviewer needs to be trained in proper interviewing 

techniques; (Boyce & Neale, 2006) however, due to time limitations, qualitative interview 

techniques were researched and implemented (Guion et al., 2011; Opdenakker, 2006; Rubin & 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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Rubin, 2011).  

Finally, the retrospective nature of the interview data warrants caution. Some of the 

participants no longer worked in the North and had to recollect past circumstances, experiences, 

and variables that impacted their decisions to leave. A retrospective study requires the 

interviewer to stimulate recall and narration of personal, first-hand experiences (in this case, 

through the questions posed), which the interviewee narrates and attaches meaning to (Belk, 

2006). Retrospective qualitative research presents specific potential biases related to how 

participants “document their past in a way that fits the present” (Silverman & Marvasti, 2008, p. 

12), that is, no longer being employed as a social worker in Nunavut. This type of research can 

be particularly difficult to establish causality, as the interviewer was “inviting a retrospective 

rewriting of history” (Silverman & Marvasti, 2008, p. 12) that was more subject to biases related 

to self-concept. Nevertheless, interviewees will always colour their narrative with personal, 

social, cultural, political, and economic contexts (Godfry & Richardson, 2004; Mallinson et al., 

2003). As Silverman and Marvasti (2008) have pointed out “there is no ‘objective’ reality to 

records,” yet oral histories remained incredibly valuable as they contributed in a prospective 

manner (p. 12). Oral narratives allowed for re-inquiry into an area and the re-shaping of future 

circumstances in order to generate a different (more desirable) outcome (Wilk, 2001; Wells, 

2001; Hunter, 2001; Thompson, 2002). In this case, that desirable outcome was the retention of 

social workers through the alleviation of the perceived stressors that caused them to leave their 

northern social work positions.  

Findings 

The following results synthesized the answers to specific and impromptu questions posed 



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to nine frontline social workers that previously worked for the DHSS. The interview transcripts 

revealed seven broad themes of analysis: understaffing; lack of supervisory supports, isolation, 

feelings of mistrust and lack of respect, cultural challenges and gaps, dual roles, and 

repercussions of the CFSA.7 All of these factors were sited by the participants as having an 

impact on stress and burnout.  

Understaffing. The most commonly reported contributing factor to leaving a social work 

job in the north was understaffing. All nine respondents confirmed that understaffing was a 

major concern for them as they were always functioning in crisis mode. Participants (P) P1, P2, 

P5, P8 and P9 worked in Iqaluit, which has the largest population in Nunavut with a recent 

census population of less than 7,000 (Statistic Canada, 2012). These participants all experienced 

understaffing during their tenure in Iqaluit, where there were only six social work positions. P3 

felt there should be at least 10 positions given the larger social problems, such as alcoholism, 

poverty, abuse and unemployment. Social workers in Nunavut reported constantly “running to 

keep up,” as they were constantly “jumping from one ‘fire’ to the next,” according to P2. These 

social workers were always dealing with emergency situations, which left them with no time to 

attend to their clients’ needs, such as preventative programming, workshops and skills 

development for their clientele. P5 stated, “It was like working in a MASH [Mobile Army 

Surgical Hospital] unit” and recommended more staff and additional preventative programs to 

minimize the constant crisis work mode.  On top of there being few positions, participants who 

had worked in Iqaluit felt that they were constantly being overworked because a majority of the 

positions were not filled or there were vacancies due to illnesses or vacation (Office of the 

Auditor-General of Canada, 2011). This point was underscored by P8 who said:  



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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…even though there were six [social workers in Iqaluit] on paper, at one point, we 

did have five, but the majority of the time we worked with three. Then if you’re 

working with three, we often worked with two, because people are away or sick.  

Temporary replacement workers were not helpful in the long term as they only contributed to the 

instability of work conditions and the inefficacy of staff. P4 exclaimed:  

…workers are in two, three, six weeks and then they’re gone, and new people 

come in. There’s constant turnover, and there’s no time for relationship building 

and continuity of service. Working in an office where there’s only four or five 

social workers, and, actually, only three social workers at any given time, 

considering people go on vacation—it’s kind of hard to service a town of seven 

thousand. 

P9 echoed concerns about understaffing being “the big issue” having stated that he had to do the 

job of at least two people during his five-year term, with a one-year leave of absence. Despite the 

fact that it was clearly evident to everyone who worked in that setting, understaffing remained a 

chronic, unresolved problem. P8 confirmed this point about understaffing given that she 

mentioned how she had never worked, in Iqaluit, when it was fully staffed.  

Understaffing concerns were also evident in smaller communities, where there was often 

only one social worker on staff at a given time. Most participants, however, felt that there should 

be at least two social workers present, which would make conditions optimal and comparable to 

the staffing, in nursing and police units, reducing stress and increasing their supports. P8 stressed 

the importance of peer support and the need to share the workload, particularly on-call demands. 

When “talking with other social workers up in the communities, they even felt much more 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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isolated than I did,” according to P8. The lack of staffing in these small communities was never 

addressed. P8 reiterated that there was a “real lack of sensitivity to the total isolation in some of 

the communities.” Most participants informed their supervisors about these situations, yet 

nothing was ever done to address them. P6 mirrored these concerns to say,  

You, as a social worker, in _______, you’re one person, but in every other 

collateral, professional in this town, they’re a team. I mean the RCMP are two. 

The nurses are two. The school is five. And here you’re one, and they all have 

very different views on how you should do your own job, right.  And so, 

sometimes that was hard to navigate by, and that’s why I advocate that there really 

should be two people, two social workers in the community.   

Even experienced social workers, like P9, recognized the issues pertaining to burnout and high 

turnover rates, commenting “I think the communities that only have one worker are a big, big 

problem, because they don’t seem to keep workers, and I think part of it is because they are 

alone.” This situation thus served as a barrier to a satisfactory work environment for social 

workers working in northern provinces. These participants acknowledged understaffing barriers 

and how they not only led to high turnover rates, but the importance of supervisors and 

supervision for Nunavut social workers.  

Lack of supervisory supports.  A serious concern amongst Nunavut social workers 

focused on the roles of supervisors and their supervisory capacity. This included supervisors’ 

decision-making abilities, their capacity to provide support, both emotionally and during work-

related activities, and their overall skills in their supervisory roles. Eight out of the nine 

participants offered comments on the impact of supervisors and the management infrastructure 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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on their ability to cope when performing their jobs. When asked about what drove them to leave 

their positions as CSSW and what contributed to them developing stress and burnout, P1, P2, P3, 

P4, P5, P6, P7 and P8 answered that it was their supervisors or lack of supervision. Several 

participants felt that they did not receive the support they needed to carry out their tasks and to 

perform their work adequately. P6 said in this regard,  

You know I think about the two types of supervision I’ve had, Yukon compared 

to Nunavut.  I mean it did feel tough in a sense to not see someone face to face (in 

Nunavut). Generally it is nice to have that face-to-face supervision.  

 
Personal contact was thus seen as an important aspect of a supervisor’s supervisory roles.   

Many supervisors were criticized for being unavailable or too busy to help their social 

workers. P6 reflected on this and said “one supervisor in Nunavut, she had her own case load. I 

think it created difficulties, because she couldn’t just focus on being just a supervisor and 

connect on that level. It was hard to get a hold of her.” On another level the supervisors were 

unable to follow through on promises and offered minimal real leadership, as many supervisors 

were involved in case management. Many participants felt this was not an appropriate use of a 

supervisor’s time or skills. This was noticed by P8, who replied,  

You know there were a number of issues, partly, certainly, it was the supervisor. 

Had we had a different supervisor I would have stayed. The incompetence at 

various levels… and when I had my evaluation by the manager, I was very clear 

on what I had felt that the supervisor… micromanaging… and not doing the 

things that she said she was going to do. Like we were going to do weekly 



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supervision, and these staff meetings, and huge, huge amounts of plans that never 

came to fruition.  

The importance of offering support and guidance for individually challenging cases was a 

pressing issue for participants and exemplified by P3 who expressed that “the supervisor is never 

really in the place to discuss, to talk, to discuss a case with you, to help you out, support you, 

You feel extremely lonely.” This supervisory absence social workers more frustrated and 

wanting more from their supervisors.  

A number of participants expressed that better communication, support, and supervisory 

guidance was needed not only locally, but also regionally. In discussing the stressful event that 

occurred in the community, P3 noted that there was “little support from the regional office… 

there is no real communication, I feel.” Likewise, P7 remarked that she “…felt the support from 

_______ was dismal” and went on to say, “Well, it was non-existent. And then, almost punitive, 

and I will not go back to ______ and report to that person again… So support is so important, I 

just need communication… sometimes I need direction. P7 also expressed how management 

roles required an even greater degree of commitment to the point of going out to remote 

communities to offer hands-on help and to mitigate the profound isolation and loneliness that 

affected social workers in those smaller northern communities. According to P7:  

So that’s the other thing I would say that is lacking in the north, is if you don’t 

have the right person in those key positions… and not to be just supportive over 

the phone, or to communicate when you send e-mails, or send documents, and, 

you know, you need a response back, and you need a signature….  But they really 

should be doing fly-ins, and going out to these isolated communities and spending 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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a few days with some of these new workers.  And I think that is one of the 

problems as to why they’re not keeping their staff.  It is not easy to be on your 

own. It’s not easy to feel like there’s no one you could call and get support, and 

just bounce things off.   

The same participant went on to talk about her specific experience, which influenced her 

opinions about supervisors, the need for more management or supervisor training, and her 

opinion of the current situation with social workers in Nunavut.  

I had an instance where a child had to get out of the community, but I couldn’t get 

a signature to get the kid out. I got no response, no response, and couldn’t get it. 

And winter was setting in and this kid was living in an abandoned house and they 

were using drugs, and I couldn’t sleep at night, and I didn’t have to go through 

that. It was a simple matter of a signature… So imagine if you’re a new young 

worker, or you’ve never been up north… I got bawled out for trying to 

communicate directly with their manager; my supervisor couldn’t, wasn’t getting 

a response either… I think management needs to be trained better. Some 

management needs to be trained better to be supportive, and to be available and 

communicative. 

P3 and P4 also mentioned concerns about the supervisory bureaucratic infrastructures in 

Nunavut. The first observation identified the cultural rift between Inuit family values and rules 

imposed by the bureaucracy in carrying out the laws of the CFSA of Nunavut. P3 indicated,  

In ________ I was told, because I have a friend who was working there, that at 

one point recently, they all resigned. That’s what I heard. Because you are always 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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at the mercy of the bureaucrats on top, who have no real contact with the 

community, and whose mandate is really to make the rules, to make sure the rules 

as respected, and in an Inuit context, dealing with Inuit family. How could it be?  

The multiple layers of bureaucracy were a problem for P4 who commented,  

You would have a regional director, and then underneath them there would be a 

regional manager, and then underneath them there would be a supervisor, where 

are you reporting to? Or you could be in God- knows-where, and you are 

reporting back to someone who’s down in the head office in _______.  You know, 

it just seems so cumbersome. 

These bureaucratic obstacles had a significant impact on these social workers. 

Furthermore, conflicts between social workers in the field and their supervisors arose. P2 

expressed this conflict to uncover how  

…the supervisor issue was kind of rough there for a while.  It started out 

with one supervisor who turned out to be a little bit of a problem. We social 

workers ended up booting him out of the office. And then we didn’t really 

have a formal supervisor for, maybe six months, six months to almost a 

year. …So I had to say the support there wasn’t the greatest.  

As a result, many participants felt that inadequate supervision was a contributor to role stress and 

the risk of burnout since participants felt the workload affected their health, particularly their 

mental health. P2 also said,  

…the workload really affected my mental health at the end with some of the 

clients. The lack of clear supervision… The inadequate resources available to 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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me... We really did kind of operate on our own. We weren’t getting any direct 

support from our supervisor or director.   

When asked whether any types of support systems or programs were available to them while 

working in Nunavut, most of the participants disclosed that there was an employee assistance 

program available. These participants were aware of this employee assistance program, but many 

social workers did not access the services nor had little trust in it, since they found the idea cold 

and remote, and it did not offer support promptly when it was needed. P8 noted that, “I had just 

heard from people attempting to use it; you have to leave your number, like no one answers the 

phone, it’s a 1-800 number.” Other participants were not aware of the services available.  

Geographic isolation. Another related issue connected to the risk of burnout was 

isolation. In this context, isolation was based on climate and geography. Geographic isolation 

was due to the vast distances between areas, differences from having come from the south, 

limited means of transportation and the separation between communities, particularly where the 

only way to enter or exit was by airplane. The extreme cold of winter, bad weather conditions, 

the confining effects of storms and the climate overall, as well as the long hours of winter 

darkness, also contributed to this sense of geographic isolation. All participants had indicated 

that they worked mostly in these types of communities (i.e. accessible by plane only) with these 

types of circumstances (i.e. having come from the south or bad weather). The winter climate and 

darkness, according to P3, contributed to the stress of working in the far north as it affected not 

only workers, but their interactions or lack of interactions between workers. P3 spoke about “the 

harsh weather and the darkness. People are always influenced by the cycle of the seasons… The 

darkness, some people become tired when it’s dark.” P9 found the geographic isolation a large 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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problem  

…because, obviously, it’s a confined community. When I first went up… I 

was there for a year without leaving. That was difficult… And just not 

having access to a lot of things I’d want, like certain foods, services, and 

resources. And obviously, the northern climate was challenging. 

P4 indicated how “[y]ou could get kind of really down. I think adjusting to, not only the climate 

change, but also the light and the dark.” This was reiterated by P5 who expressed the isolating 

effect of the weather; “The weather there wears on you. The winters there are very, very long. 

You start to get cabin fever by about April….  It causes isolation, for sure. The darkness gets to 

you, you’re more tired.” P6 articulated this concern when he said,  

I would have been willing to work there longer. I could have done it for a 

year, but I knew beyond a year, I couldn’t …and I would probably have 

stayed there longer. It was, primarily, the isolation, of not having a team 

member to work with. 

This type of isolation was further compounded by social isolation.  

Social Isolation. Social isolation was a major issue for all social workers working in 

smaller northern communities. All participants emphasized the need to establish a network of 

contacts, friends and family, where possible, to provide additional psychological supports. P3 

professed,  

The worst situation like that is if you are alone. Many social workers were 

alone. You are so isolated, and so unable very often to fulfill your own 

needs.  Like needs to see good movies. Need to go for a meal with friends. 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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You need friends. You need a support system. And you need to be able to 

get out of this place. 

Several participants incorporated the impact of this type of isolation when they responded to 

questions pertaining to why they left their jobs or why they were stressed or experienced 

burnout. P3 expressed,  

…because the need to avoid the burnout, you need a break, or a sabbatical year, 

and vacation. It’s not always possible; it’s very expensive up here to travel.  Just 

to leave ______ and Iqaluit and to go to Ottawa is twenty five hundred for a 

return. It’s more than going to Europe. 

 
P3 further stressed how taking a vacation was “not a luxury, it’s necessary.” As a way of 

countering the effects of isolation, P4 commented,  

Like you were so isolated, and there was so little to get involved in that 

there really wasn’t any place to go.  I tried to keep it very balanced… as 

long as you made your opportunity to socialize and make some friends, and 

make some real connections.  If you didn’t, it could become very lonely. 

 
P9 remarked, “It was good to have some family and friends for support, for sure. Like there’s no 

way I could have made it up there on my own.” It is relevant to note that P3, P4, P5, P6 and P9 

made specific references to these isolation issues, while P1 and P2, who identified themselves as 

Inuuk, did not have these problems. P8 was not affected by isolation, claiming that she occupied 

relatively short temporary postings and felt her years of experience helped protect and prevent 

her from burnout.  



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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Feelings of mistrust and lack of respect. Many social workers commented on how Inuit 

still had a lot of mistrust towards non-Aboriginals, which they attributed to the residual effects of 

colonialism. This was reflected in the comments and noted amongst all seven non-Aboriginal 

social workers. P5 summarized,  

You’re a white person, you’re a minority, and you’re going in, and you’re 

working with a population that doesn’t have a lot of trust for white people. 

…People look at you, who is this girl, and what is she able to do for us? And, is 

she OK? Can we trust her? Basically you’re going in and providing crisis 

intervention. And that’s difficult to do when you don’t have the trust of the 

community. That takes time to build. 

 
As per P4, “I felt people [Inuit] became very, very angry… here you have white people coming 

in, professionals, and they [Inuit] felt totally done to.” P1, who was Inuk, responded on how 

mistrust also occurred within the office where she worked as the social worker were primarily 

non-Aboriginal. She “felt that there was a bit of prejudice from workers from the south, non-

Aboriginals” and experienced many cultural challenges dealing with their co-workers (P1). P1 

said, “Mistrust amongst clients and colleagues made it hard for these northern social workers to 

make connections.” These social workers found it difficult to provide a continuous level of care 

or supportive programs because they felt alienated, excluded and rejected from these 

communities.  

Social workers expressed that they had a hard time trying to make a connection with their 

clients, due to the high turnover rate of northern social workers, the short-lived individual 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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placements and the lack of more permanent staff in these positions. P7 discussed her experience 

with an Inuk whose first question was “How long are you here for?” The social worker, P7, “was 

embarrassed to say I’m only here for two months. And so I felt that lessened my ability to be 

effective with them. It affected their ability to accept and work with you, because you were 

temporary.” The temporary nature of some of these placements and the short amount of time in 

any given community diminished the social workers capacity to be effective within the 

community and prevented them from obtaining the trust they needed for Inuit to facilitate 

communal change.  

Another common theme that was felt by seven of the participants was the feeling of lack 

of respect for their roles as social workers. P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6 and P9 specifically noted this 

as they felt that other professions did not have any respect for social workers. P5 indicated “their 

needs to be more respect for social workers.” These workers also felt that these negative 

perceptions were embedded within the community itself. Other social workers felt that this was a 

pervasive phenomenon because other human services workers, such as nurses or teachers, had 

salary incentives, travel grants, staffing support and sabbatical leave. This was emphasized by P6 

who said,  

Look at the financial rewards that a nurse gets… various bonuses every month. 

For the social workers these don’t even exist. I feel that there’s a double standard; 

I feel that community social service workers are not necessarily as well 

appreciated as other supports in Nunavut. 

The participants expressed how demonstrating respect is needed in order to obtain resources and 

foster community growth.  



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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Cultural challenges and gaps. An important theme involved the many ways in which 

the cultural challenges and gaps interplay between social workers (in the tasks they administered 

as representatives of the state) and their Inuit clients. These cultural clashes were more evident 

amongst the younger and newer social workers coming into Nunavut from the southern Canadian 

provinces. P5’s arrival in the north was a definite culture shock in terms of her level of 

knowledge about Inuit, whereby she revealed, “I knew nothing about Nunavut, I knew nothing 

about Inuit, absolutely nothing.”  Southern social workers had little or no cultural knowledge or 

Inuit IQ. They did not understand the workings or challenges of applying the CFSA in Nunavut. 

The CFSA was established through a transplantation of the act from the Northwest Territories, 

which in turn was adapted from the province of Alberta. As a result, the CFSA’s origins, created 

tensions between social workers’ and their clients and increased the anger felt by Inuit when 

these workers apprehended their children. The CFSA did not reflect Inuit values and culture. 

P1, P3, P4, P5, P6 and P8 commented on these challenges of coming from the south and 

trying to adapt to Inuit culture and societal values. This gap made these social workers 

misunderstood by their Inuit clients, given that their roles or understanding of child protection 

and their application of the CFSA conflicted. P4 specified,  

In trying to do that we try to look at it through the eyes of what down south 

views are, and we’re really and truly not focused on the culture. We lose 

sight of the culture, of where they’re at, and I think that can be part of the 

major problem.  

 
This cultural gap had macro-level implications for P8. According to P8,  



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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Certainly working with the supervisor, it had an impact on my decision to 

return to my home province. I think again, the southern mentality, you can’t 

bring your southern Canadian mentality into Nunavut, and expect things to 

be the same. She was pretty nasty in terms of alienating our foster parents.  

Divisions between northern and southern social workers’ views perpetuated colonial practices 

where Inuit children were then sent for treatments to southern programs in Alberta and Ontario. 

Similar to past residential schools, this practice failed to take into consideration Inuit values, 

customs, traditions and culture. As per P8, “[t]hey’re in an Aboriginal treatment program, they 

get homesick, they didn’t like the program, didn’t like the smudging… they’re not Aboriginal.” 

These programs were “not sensitive to Inuit culture” (P8). P5 echoed these remarks by indicating 

that the process of sending children and youths to southern facilities had a negative impact on 

these children and their families: socially, financially and culturally. These cultural challenges 

and gaps manifested tensions between the social worker and Inuit.  

 The Inuuk social workers proved to be valuable for these social workers when they dealt 

with their clients. P1 observed,  

I never had any arguments. I treated them [Inuit clients] like a human being, 

accepting them the way they are. I used my traditional knowledge and 

values to deal with people, like, without judging, criticizing or telling them 

what to do. 

This social worker’s cultural knowledge and sensitivity allowed her to reflect on how “social 

workers, if they could learn more about IQ, if that could be implemented into the work 

environment, it would lead to a better understanding of Inuit values.” Inuuk social workers had a 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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better understanding of Inuit culture and traditions since they were able to relate easily with their 

clients. Regardless of their position, social workers, in the north, faced dual roles.  

Dual roles.  One of the cultural challenges mentioned by P1, P2, P3, P6 and P9 dealt 

with these social workers’ finding themselves in a dual role when living and working in a small 

community setting. These social workers would meet clients in everyday circumstances, such as 

shopping or at social gatherings. Dual roles, as both a professional social worker and community 

member, were felt to be in conflict due to situations that arose, particularly ones that involved the 

apprehension of children or situations of abuse. P2 commented, “I dreaded the days I thought I 

might have contact with school friends. In this town, as soon as you become a social worker 

everyone knows about it, and you’re almost instantly hated by just about everybody in town.” 

This dual role made it hard for northern social workers to be in constant contact and meeting 

people in their routine daily social settings. P1 recognized how clients would have a habit of 

talking about their problems in inappropriate social setting, creating an uncomfortable 

atmosphere or situation for social workers. This was even more stressful for those social workers 

that were from the community.  

Repercussions of the Child and Family Services Act (CFSA). While the CFSA was 

not part of the initial interview questions, it became incorporated into the interviews after some 

of the earlier participants (P1, P2 and P3) mentioned how it was an issue and caused them stress. 

All of the participants, except for one, felt that the Act did not properly reflect Inuit needs and 

values. Many Inuit were suspicious of the Act becoming a constant source of conflict and 

cultural discord between the social workers, who must apply the Act and those affected by it: 

their Inuit clients. The conflicts and challenges that occurred because of the CFSA were brought 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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out by the observations of P3;  

There is a Child and Family Services Act, and this Act was just taken from the 

North West Territories (NWT), and plugged into Nunavut, and the rules were 

exactly the same, like apprehension and child welfare. It hasn’t changed to date. 

So, we were always torn between the child and family services and trying to work 

with family act x or z… So the burnout came mainly of having to constantly fight 

against the standard, the southern standard, and the place where you are living, 

Inuit community standard, and they always clash.  

In addition, P6 compared his experiences in the Yukon, with Nunavut, with respect to the CFSA. 

“It [the Act] probably needs to be updated. In the Yukon they have a brand new act and I would 

say it’s better. There are better tools available to plan with the family, such as a family group 

conference. I think that would be nice to have in Nunavut” (P6). Most felt the CFSA had a 

significant impact on their increased levels of stress and its contribution to burnout.     

The effects of these factors: stress and burnout. High stress was a recognized element 

of the social work profession, particularly for front-line CSSW. All the respondents, in these 

interviews, felt that there were varying degrees of stress in their job. Most felt burnt out or would 

feel prone to developing burnout if they had stayed long term in the northern community they 

were employed in. One respondent was very specific. P9 felt that being overworked, due to 

understaffing, was the main cause of what he claims was “classic burnout, just extremely low 

energy, irritable, always tired.” For eight out of nine participants, the workload was not 

manageable; thus, these added levels of stress led to exhaustion. P5 noticed, “I just needed to 

sleep and take it easy. I needed a stress leave and then I didn’t take it because we were the last 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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two in the office.” P2 mentioned, “if I started using alcohol to feel better and to go to sleep I’m 

going to become a full-blown alcoholic.” For these social workers, stress and burnout were 

noticeable and unavoidable.     

Discussion 

The purpose of this research was to investigate burnout risk factors their implication for 

turnover rate among CSSWs in Nunavut. Analysis of the interviews revealed several key themes 

leading to burnout and stress, including understaffing, lack of supervisory supports, isolation, 

feelings of mistrust and lack of respect between social workers and their clients, cultural 

challenges and gaps, dual roles and repercussions of the CFSA.8  Environmental factors were the 

major contributing influencing burnout. As such, the results of this study concur with the six 

environmental sources of burnout as identified by Maslach, Schaufeli and Leiter (2001): work 

overload, lack of autonomy due to rigid regulations and tight monitoring, insufficient rewards, 

unfairness and respect in the workplace, breakdown among community members and colleagues 

due to value clashes or conflicts with respect to work goals and priorities. All participants 

experienced these challenges to varying extents as they attempted to become integrated into the 

northern communities they worked in.  

Other authors, such as Corey and Corey (2011), listed similar factors leading to burnout 

in members of the helping professions. Their list included items such as “professionally taxing 

work without much opportunity for supervision,” “giving a great deal personally and not getting 

back much in the way of appreciation” and “working with a difficult population” (Corey & 

Corey, 2011, p. 318). High staff turnover and recruitment problems were seen to be emblematic 

of social workers, which has far-reaching consequences by creating a type of vicious circle of 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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loss of staff and increased workload for those who stay on the job (Van Heugten, 2011). These 

finding are consistent with the experience reported by social workers in Nunavut, who were 

constantly faced with a high turnover of staff and recruitment problems as well as resulting 

increased workloads. Turnover rates are thought to be a problem when exceeding 20% of staff 

per year (Nissly, Mor Barak, & Levin, 2005). This was consistent with the number of social 

worker positions filled by temporary workers: 25 out of 46, suggesting that turnover is a serious 

issue amongst Nunavut’s CSSWs (George, 2008). These issues and concerns expressed by 

participants had an impact on their abilities to cope, levels of stress (role stress) and increased 

their potential for burnout.    

In the area of understaffing, a direct corollary of this observation was the longstanding 

problem of recruiting and retaining social workers in northern territories (Bodor, 2009). The 

participants made these observations in response to the questions that asked them to reveal the 

factors they felt contributed to burnout and stress and that, consequently, influenced them to 

leave their jobs as social workers in Nunavut. Their responses were congruent with Minogue’s 

(2005) news report that indicated how “[s]ocial workers in Nunavut are handling too many cases 

without enough money or resources.” (p. 1) She added that, “Turnover is high for social workers, 

who often burn out on the job” (p. 1). The turnover rate and burnout, according to Maslach and 

Jackson (1986), remained a major factor amongst northern social workers, evident in the area of 

understaffing that was predominantly higher in remote communities. The reality of understaffing 

of Nunavut’s social workers was a recognized problem, as documented in a recent government 

paper; the Nunavut Social Services Review (NSSR) (Phaneuf, Dudding, & Arreak, 2011). In this 

document they noted that several factors contributed to understaffing, notably social and 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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geographic isolation, stress as well as salary and benefit issues (Phaneuf, Dudding, & Arreak, 

2011). Understaffing was synonymous with work overload, which was given as a major cause of 

burnout in the index list of environmental sources for this problem (Maslach, Schaufeli & Leiter, 

2001). This study’s findings are consistent with the Report of the Auditor General (2011) and 

Phaneuf, Dudding and Arreak (2011) highlighting the major concerns of understaffing and 

unrealistic workloads amongst Nunavut social workers. Yet, despite understaffing problems 

documented from over nearly twenty years ago to present, it remains an unaddressed issue. 

The recognition that proper supervision was essential to the success, health and wellbeing 

of social workers in the north has also been well documented. Lack of supervisory supports have 

been seen as a priority in the NSSR (2011) report and have been highlighted by social workers in 

this study. The NSSR (2011) report indicated that there is a need to optimize social services in 

Nunavut. Provision of knowledgeable and supportive supervision is, thus, a necessary strategy to 

help prevent burnout amongst northern and rural social workers in Canada, who have limited 

access to supervision or interactive supports from their peers (Bodor, 2009). This study’s 

findings corroborate those of both Schmidt (2000) and O’Neill (2004), whose work also noted 

the relationship between supervisory support and the prevention of burnout in northern social 

workers. Retention of child welfare workers, and the prevention of burnout, was also well 

recognized in settings other than the north in which appropriate supervision and support of 

workers was essential (Van Hook & Rothenberg, 2009). The importance of supervision and 

managerial support remains a key element in the task to prevent job-related stress and workplace 

burnout (Van Heugten, 2011).  

Following the criteria for sources of burnout by Corey and Corey (2011) and Maslach 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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and Leiter (1997), stressful work without adequate supervision was an important contributor to 

burnout because of the lack of collegial networking provided by supervisors. Many participants 

were clearly unhappy with the bureaucracy and how it operated given that the rules and 

regulations were a priority over the well being of clients. The finding echo those of Maslach and 

Leiter (1997), who found that employees felt they had no control over their work when they were 

forced to adhere to the insensitive application of the CFSA. In addition, many participants were 

left with a sense of powerlessness particularly in situations where managers were though to have 

made poor decisions or not adhere to their responsibilities.  

Various aspects of isolation have been found to contribute to stress, burnout and staff 

turnover (Phaneuf, Dudding, & Arreak, 2011; Schmidt, 2000, O’Neill, 2004; Misener, 2008). 

Isolation, both social and geographic, was cited by several participants as a key stressor 

contributing to burnout and to their decision to leave work. Social isolation was described by 

participants as encompassing: a lack of contact and support from colleagues, separation from 

family and friends, and being in an unfamiliar culture or place, particularly when the social 

worker was non-Aboriginal or from southern provinces. Once more, this loss of communal 

interaction with colleagues, due to both social and geographic isolation, as identified by Maslach 

and Leiter (1997), adds to the risk of developing burnout. These points were also featured in the 

Canadian literature relating to child welfare workers across Canada. Anderson and Gobeil (2003) 

indicated that “the feeling of belonging to a community and having a solid peer support network 

at work reduces burnout at management and front line levels” (p. 4). Participants in this study 

shared similar responses, complaining of isolation and being undervalued, which is congruent 

with previous studies (Alwon & Reitz, 2000; Soderfeldt, Soderfeldt & Warg, 1995). Clearly, 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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isolation remains an essential concern for CSSW’s in Canada, however, it is especially poignant 

in the north. Isolation, in turn, adds to facilitate burnout and ultimately job leaving, as the two are 

linked together in this manner (Huang, Chuang & Lin, 2003; Kim & Stoner, 2008; Drake & 

Yadama, 1996).  

Dual roles, living and working in a small community in Nunavut, even one as large as 

Iqaluit with around seven thousand people, means that a social worker cannot have the 

anonymity they would enjoy in a southern city environment when away from their job. As per 

Schmidt (2000), “It’s like living in a ‘fish bowl’ always under scrutiny by neighbours and your 

community, many of whom may also be clients” (p. 344). The participants saw this as negative, 

and a source of stress, particularly when doing an apprehension of a child as part of their child 

protection role, and then experiencing the backlash from the family involved or from other 

members of the community. Social workers found themselves caught in the middle, between 

their job responsibilities and the need to make connections and derive support from the 

community where they worked and lived, causing significant emotional and physical stress, as 

coincident with other research on role stress (Ben-Zur & Michael, 2008; Um & Harrison, 1998; 

and Mor Barak, Nissly, & Levin, 2001). The social location of the social workers, specifically if 

they were from Aboriginal community or from the south, influenced both their relationships with 

clients and their experiences of being social workers. On one hand, the Inuuk social workers felt 

less stigma working in their own community. However, according to my participants, when 

interactions were adversarial (such as in their child protection roles) they felt more vulnerable to 

community stigma. The non-Inuit workers felt tended to feel like outsiders, which tainted their 

relationship with the clients with mistrust, making it more difficult for them to feel connected to 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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the community. These circumstances led to an erosion of respect for the worker, generation of 

mistrust between social workers and their clients, as well as widening cultural challenges and 

gaps.  

  Feelings of mistrust and lack of respect between social workers and their clients, cultural 

challenges and gaps and repercussions of the CFSA can be considered linked problems. These 

factors were particularly prominent for southern non- social workers that went to Inuit 

environments where Inuit looked upon them through the eyes of the colonized, having 

experienced years of maltreatment at the hands of European people or governments. These 

tensions included, but were not limited to: historical policies of assimilation, bureaucratic 

governance, and the imposition of non-Inuit values on Inuit communities (Rae, 2011). As 

expressed by the participants themselves, it was difficult to develop a trusting relationship with a 

social worker who was in the community for a relatively brief period of time, hence, this 

‘revolving door’ approach to provision of social services was hardly conducive to long-term 

confidence amongst Inuit clients. Furthermore, Nunavuumiut observed that traditional Inuit 

culture and knowledge have not been properly respected or reflected by social service providers 

in Nunavut (Phaneuf, Dudding, & Arreak, 2011). Such perceptions served to create more barriers 

to acceptance for the social workers involved and added to their levels of stress and risk of 

burnout.  

When social workers looked at the problems of their Inuit clients with a southern 

mentality it led to unsuccessful interactions between the social worker and their clients given the 

various cultural gaps (Tester & Irniq, 2008; Bodor, 2009; Braedly & Luxton, 2010). The 

adversarial and conflicted roles these social workers took on when administering the facets of the 



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CFWA was reflected in both the literature and in my interviews with the participants. 

Participants recognized the shortcomings of the Act and the need for it to be amended (Rae, 

2011). One could argue that these conflicts arose from administering the CFWA, which became 

another source of environmental stress that added to social worker’s risk of burnout (Maslach & 

Leiter, 1997). Phaneuf, Dudding and Arreak (2011) recognized these criticisms leveled at the 

CFSA in Nunavut. In fact, they noted that many Inuit viewed the Act more as a “weapon” than a 

“tool,” thus, shedding light on understanding the current adversarial nature of the interactions 

between communities, child and family services, and the need to make it more collaborative for 

all parties involved (p. 41). A specific deficiency was the lack of a post-apprehension review 

processes that left parents unable to appeal the decisions to apprehend their child(ren), within a 

reasonable time frame (Rae, 2011). This caused increased tensions between social workers and 

their clients since the CFSA as well as Inuit’s cultural practices were in constant conflict. The 

consequence was that it led to a toxic work environment and awkward living situations for the 

social worker. 

Stress and Burnout.  Stress, and specifically role stress for the social worker, delineated 

in the literature review, was an added amplitude for northern settings, as laid out by Zapf (1993) 

and more recently by Phaneuf, Dudding and Arreak, (2011). For the participants in this study, 

stress permeated all aspects of the interviews. Job stress was amongst the salient factor 

contributing to burnout, in accordance to other studies (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & 

Schaufeli, 2001; Griffin, Hogan, Lambert, Tucker-Gail & Baker, 2010; Shin, Rosario, Morch, & 

Chestnut, 1984; and Rai, 2010). The heightened job stressors were interconnected with social 

workers intentions to leave their positions (Demerouti, et al., 2001; Hopkins, Cohen-Callow, 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

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Kim & Hwang 2010; Mor Barak, Levin & Nissly & Lane, 2006). Stress, therefore, was a reality 

in the world of social work regardless of the setting, further amplified by the unique challenges 

of working in the isolated, remote northern areas of Nunavut and amongst a unique Inuit culture.  

The findings of this study revealed that the experience of these participants were not very 

different from child protection social workers in other settings. Amongst child protection 

workers, burnout was estimated to affect up to 50% of these workers within the United States 

(Conrad & Keller-Guenther, 2006). Burnout was caused by high levels of role stress, the 

experiences and struggles of being overworked and the issue of social workers’ encountering 

understaffing in northern provinces (Conrad & Keller-Guenther, 2006). Many of these social 

workers felt they needed strong supports from their supervisors and colleagues (Conrad & 

Keller-Guenther, 2006). What sets the northern workers apart from these previous studies was 

the added barriers of dealing with a cultural rift, administering a southern oriented CFSA, which 

was not tailored to Inuit culture, and the social and geographical isolation incumbent to working 

in Nunavut. Together, these tensions immerged as a result of the lack of trust of southern non-

Aboriginal social workers, as a lingering effect of the colonial era where European involvement 

in Nunavut and Inuit culture threatened their way of life (Stephenson et al., 2000; Gough, 

Shlonsky, & Dudding, 2009; Schmidt, 2000; Rae, 2011; Government of Nunavut, Nunavut 

Tunngavik Inc., Embrace Life Council and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2010).  

The constellation of themes generated herein, as supported by the literature, can be seen 

to be a recipe for burnout and high rates of turnover among social workers in Nunavut. The 

findings, thus, supported the rationale for this study, which was to outline the nature and causes 

for burnout and turnover among Nunavut’s front line social workers. This data revealed the 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

 46 

implications of isolation, poor supervision and cultural colonialism as large contributors to stress, 

turnover rates amongst northern social workers and burnout. This may be partially due to the 

development of coping skills over time— an attribute more likely to be associated with seasoned 

rather than young social workers (Boyas, Wind, & Kang, 2011), as evidenced by P7—a veteran 

social worker. Northern social workers experienced similar and often times heightened stress 

levels related to the nature of social workers in other jurisdictions (Van Heugten, 2011). All of 

this study’s participants encountered these struggles and obstacles as they tried to balance social, 

professional and community interactions. It was found that social, professional, and community 

supports played a vital role in terms of how the social worker adapted to the Northern work 

environment and the turnover rates within these positions.  

 While personality traits have been found to have some impact on job performance and 

satisfaction in other studies, I did not specifically isolate this factor as a variable of study in my 

interviews, nor did my reflexive approach to data collection lead me to ask questions about the 

role of personality in the situations I was studying.  My dialogue with the participants lead me to 

deduce that their challenges were based more on environmental factors than personality traits. 

Furthermore, as this is a preliminary study in an otherwise, untapped area of research, I felt that 

delving into personality traits was beyond the scope of initial inquiry.  

Recommendations 

       These findings revealed that there are several areas of improvement that must be addressed 

in order to increase or even sustain the retention rate of social workers in Inuit communities. 

Social worker burnout and turnover issues implicate not only social workers’ experiences 

working in the North, but also the bridging of cultural gaps and inequalities between Inuit and 



MSW Thesis-C.McKenzie McMaster- School of Social Work 
 

 47 

European colonial ancestry, along with oppression still experienced by Canada’s Inuit. A non-

adversarial approach to interactions is essential to reduce tensions between social workers and 

their Inuit clients given the historical contexts. This may be achievable through preventative 

strategies and training of new or existing social service staff (Phaneuf, Dudding, & Arreak, 

2011), such as how Inuit often make important decisions through consensus (Nunavut 

Kavamanga, 2010). Patience and time is needed in working with this population in order to build 

gradual consensus amongst the community to allow for the achievement of social change. It is 

also important to recognize that the summer months are significant to Inuit; therefore, they may 

be less inclined to keep appointments or even attend school during these periods (De Maio, 

personal communication, 25 June 2010). Attention to these differences can allow social workers 

to build insider relationships and to bridge the cultural gaps between themselves and their client.  

The most important aspect of the social worker-client relationship is developing 

partnerships with individuals and groups in the northern communities (Um & Harrison, 1998; 

Schmidt, 2002). What this does is avoid the power imbalances and issues faced by incoming 

social workers, shifting the role of the social worker away from that of the colonial agent to one 

as a collaborator for effective social change (Um & Harrison, 1998; Schmidt, 2002). It also 

removes the social worker from being in a position where they are imposing or forcing their own 

mainstream values onto Aboriginals (Um & Harrison, 1998; Schmidt, 2002). The types of social, 

professional and community supports available to social workers can ultimately impact all these 

client-worker relations.   

Additional recommendations that arose from this study include: 

1. Train social workers so that they can provide culturally sensitive supports. This can include 



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training more local Inuit as social workers who can provide basic services within their respective 

communities. This is similar to the “barefoot doctors” disseminated by Cuba to staff rural health 

care facilities throughout Central and Southern America (Roemer, 1986).  

2. Educate the community about social work mores, goals and the rationale for this profession. 

Encourage engagement by and within the community to reduce problems of child and family 

abuse, through workshops and other communal activities. This means increasing the involvement 

of elders who are highly respected and looked at for guidance and support.  

3. Apply the IQ values in dealing with conflict in the community and with social workers. This 

allows for more culturally sensitive programming.  

4. Amend the CFSA to reflect Inuit values and culture, which would address the interactions 

between social workers and their clients. 

5. Use modern technologies; such as telephone or video conferencing techniques, to improve 

communication between social workers and their supervisors. This would eliminate the 

expensive site visits, which may be impractical. In addition, constant interaction with fellow 

social workers may help alleviate stress because they would ha